A Study On British Airways And Iberia Management Essay

A Study On British Airways And Iberia Management assayThe learning point behind this assignment is to assess the financial consequences of the uniting of British Airways and Iberia. In this activity I go for studied the brilliance of conjugation activities and how does the uniting of BA Iberia ordain proceeds the stakeholders. In succinct words I have execute a strategical compendium of the nuclear fusion plan mingled with the cardinal placements with the help of various strategic tools and assumes.2. Introduction2.1 Merger and AcquisitionIn the contemporary world Merger and Acquisition is an inevitable tool for the organisations for scraming to expand and make a mark in the highly globalised market.In the first half of 2007, there appe ard no end in vision to the unprecedented global bellowing in Merger and Acquisition, it even come out of the closetstripped the dot.com era of the late 90s. But things appeared sort of difficult with the so-called sub-prime cre dit drudge making credit approach cogency scarce and expensive towards the end of 2007. thither is no suspicion to the position that at the multi-billion dollar deal end of the market, credit crunch did human body a brick wall to the Merger Acquisition activity for the financial buyers. thither are still plenty of strategic investors looking to expand in spite of the doom and gloom of the credit market. Merger and acquisition will still be required to fill up the growth gaps that organic fertiliser growth burn non fill.The atomic number 63an Consulting MA Report 2008, Equiteq p122.2 History of British AirwaysBritish Airways was formed in 1974 by the union of twain(prenominal) British political sympathies owned respiratory tracts the BOAC (British Overseas Airways Corp.) and the BEA (British European Airways). BOAC operated long hauled multinational routes whereas BEA operated Short hauled European routes. BA was floated on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) in 1987, when it acquired the opponent British Caledonian. In 1992 BA acquired Dan-Air. In the drive to make itself to a greater extent(prenominal) competitive BA introduced the o innovativeorld alliance in the 1990s. BA airways acquired 9% assign in Iberia in March 2000 for 155m (Ptas 41 billion). Today, BA is the UKs largest international skyway flying to 148 destinations and fleet of 245 aircrafts in service.www.ba.com/history2.3 History of IberiaIberia was founded on June 28, 1927 by Horacio Echeberrieta. It was non only Spains first airline, but also the first to fly between Europe and South America (as of 1946), the first to establish a walk-on air shuttle service (between Madrid and Barcelona), and the first in Europe to offer an international frequent flyers customer loyalty programme (Iberia Plus).Today Iberia is an international transport crowd operating in around 100 airports. It is a member of one of the just about valuable airline alliances, oneworld, and is renowned for its collective social responsibility. Iberia is a Leader in Spain and in the Europe Latin America market. It flies to more than 100destinationsall over the world. It has Europes most modern fleets.www.iberia.com/uk2.4 Research objectivesAs the title of my Research and synopsis parturiency suggests the main objective of explore was to study the drivers and the financial and operational consequences of a merger between the renowned BA and Iberia.Research Questions and Objectivesstrategic epitome of the Merger terminationThe first objective of this assignment was to analyse the strategic decision of merger. How did the Environmental Variables affect the decision of the merger and what are the strengths and weaknesses of the decision? What would be the effect of the culture of both the organisations on the decision? How would the result organisation benefit from the merger?How will the decision fulfil the expectations and aspirations of the stakeholders? trace the stakeholders and analyse how will the merger affect them? What are the views of the stakeholders on the merger decision? How will the fears and resistance of the employees and other stakeholders resolved?What were the Financial and usable Consequences of the merger?After the above questions were answered, I wanted to find out what will be the financial and operational consequences of the merger, to what extent will these organizations be successful to maintain and acquire their merger objectives. What will be the last effect of the whole event on the resultant organisations constitution, its management and the financial report?2.5 Research Approach/MethodologyThe Research was started with the collection of stress information on Merger and Acquisition and the basic information on BA and Iberia. The main objective of this was to gain the understanding of the topic field of force and the acquaintance with the organizations in concern. After the general background information the prelude research w as conducted to outline the research methods to be used, and the sources for information to be stash away. The research is mainly based on the qualitative and quantitative information collected from the secondary data sources like books, case study materials, annual reports, magazines, intelligence operation paper articles and online search engines. The information gathered is analyzed using The Johnson, Scholes and Whittington (JSW) model of strategic management. It consists of three elements depth psychology, Choice and Implementation as explained belowThe Strategic position/ abridgmentStrategic Choices Strategy into action (implementation).ACCA Paper P3 job psycho epitome The Complete Text 2007/08 p103. Literature Review3.1 Merger and its typesA merger is a complete absorption of one keep company by another, wherein the getting firm retains its identity and the acquired firm ceases to exist as a break in entity.Corporate Finance Fundamentals by Ross, Westerfield Jordan, E ighth Edition Chapter 25 p816Acquisition by merger results in a combination of assets and liabilities of the acquired and acquiring firms.3.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of using a merger to acquire a firmAdvantagesA firsthand advantage is that a merger is legally simple and does not constitute as much as other forms of acquisition. The reason is that the firms entirely agree to combine their entire trading operations.Revenue Enhancement is one of the important reasons for an acquisition. The unite firm may generate greater tax incomes than two shed light on firms. Increased revenue come from marketing gains, strategic benefits and increase in the market share and curtaild competition.The driving force behind more mergers is the concept of synergy. The synergy of two like companies joining forces can lots increase revenues drastically. ace of the other important reasons to merge is that a have firm may operate more efficiently than two separate firms. Operational effic iency increases through and through economies of scale and complementary resources (missing ingredient of success). every firms must invest in working capital and fixed assets to hold back an efficient level of operating activity. A merger may slenderize the combined investment needed by the two firms.DisadvantagesA primary disadvantage is that a merger must be approved by a vote of the shareholders of each firm. Obtaining necessary votes can be long and difficult.Furthermore the cooperation of target firms existing management is almost a requisite for a merger. This cooperation may not be easily or tattily obtained.3.1.2 Types of mergerMergers may be broadly classified in congenerical MergerCongeneric merger occur where two encounter firms are in the same general industriousness, but they have no common buyer/customer or supplier relationship. Congeneric mergers are of two types (a) Horizontal merger In this case both the companies are in the same stage of production and als o in the same industry e.g., a car shaper merger with a car manufacturer (b) Vertical merger Two companies selling different but colligate products in the same market e.g., a cone supplier merging with an ice cream maker.Conglomerate.A conglomerate is a combination of two companies engaged in entirely different businesses together into one overarching company. in that respect are two types of mergers that are distinguished by how the merger is financed. procure mergers As the name suggests, this manikin of merger occurs when one company barter fors another. The purchase is made with cash or through the issue of some kind of debt instrument.Consolidation mergers With this merger, a brand new company is formed and both companies are bought and combined under the new entity.4. Analysis4.1 Strategic Analysis of the merger decisionThe study of the Environmental Variables using the PESTEL and SWOT analysis was conducted at this stage of the research to evaluate the points for the me rger of the BA and Iberia. The Analysis of these factors affecting the decision is detailed as follows4.1.1 PESTEL AnalysisPolitical Factors One of the preconditions for the merger deal is getting allot confirmations from the UK and Spanish Civil strain Authorities as to the suitability of the UK and Spanish bodies and as to the implementation of the structure.stinting Factors Merger is expected to generate annual synergies of nigh 400 jillion. The new theme will combine the direct positions of both the companies, attain EOS and easily increase the market share, therefrom enhancing their presence in international longhaul markets. affable Factors Merger is expected to direct significant customer benefit. BA customers will gain access to 59 and Iberia customers will gain access to 98 new destinations with better frequencies, connections and reduced prices.Technological Factors BA customers will benefit from modern fleet of aircrafts of Iberia airlines.Legal Factors Merger ca nnot go ahead without appropriate just and other regulations clearance. Iberia reserves the right to terminate the agreement if the solution between BAand its pension trustees on the deficit is not satisfactory.4.1.2 SWOT AnalysisStrengthsThe new group will spare some 400m annually by cutting overlapping routes, and by combining maintenance, office functions and business-class lounges.The pair may also have more muscle when it comes to negotiations to buy new planes from Boeing and Airbus.The BA/Iberia merger will increase BAs dominance at Heathrow with 44% of take-off and landing place slots this winter. It is impossible for any other airline to replicate their scale.There is a compelling strategic rationale for the transaction, which is expected to generate annual synergies of approximately 400 million Euros, and benefit both companies shareholders, customers and employees,WeaknessesIberias cabin conspiracy have just finished one round of strikes and are promising more in a dis pute over changes to their jobs. BAs attempts to cut cabin crew and freeze pay could also result in strikes. Ground rung and pilots are equally willing to use industrial action to get their way.The attempt to keep two separate brands alive, with separate corporate operations could eat into some of the advantages of the merger and even prove to be a potential diseconomy of scale.OpportunitiesThis enhanced scale and ability to compete with other study airlines and will enable BA-Iberia to participate in future industry integration opening the door for BAs long-held ambition to forge a partnership with American Airlines.The merger will create a strong European airline well able to compete in the 21st century.ThreatsThe credit crunch has hammered ticket sales (especially of premium priced Business class tickets) and kindle has been expensive.The International Air Transport Association, an industry body, estimates that total losses for the worlds airlines this twelvemonth will be som e $11 billion.4.2 Expectations and Aspirations of the Stakeholders of the organisationsA stakeholder can be defined as someone who has an interest in the well-being of the organisation ACCA course notes from Kaplan financial for Paper P3 Business AnalysisIn this context, the stakeholders can be identified as the shareholders, managers, employees and suppliers of BA and Iberia and the customers, government, locality and social club at large. Success in the strategic decisions can not be achieved without count to the stakeholders.ShareholdersShareholders are the owners of the organisations it is the duty of the organisations to act in the best interest of its shareholders and to tap their wealth. The benefits of the merger to the SHs can be listed as followsThe anticipated annual revenue of the combined group estimated to be 15 billion euros.Expected cost saving of about 400 million euros a year.The combined group will be the third largest airline.Increased market share and dominan ce.SuppliersThe merger is set to create the third largest airline and hence bound to reduce the bargaining power of the suppliers.Managers employeesEmployees play a vital role in the success of the organisation. Thus the organisation has a duty towards its workforce. According to the juvenile updates merger is unlikely to bring any benefits to its staff, on the contrary both the organisations have ambitious plans to cut cost by way of verbiage and pay cuts. The unite union has asked for assurances to avoid compulsory redundancies.CustomersAccording to the sources, the customers of the combined grouped are said to benefit fromBetter frequenciesMore connections war-ridden pricesAccess to more VIP loungesEnhance frequent flyer benefitspolitical scienceThe government are interested in taxes from the revenue, higher the revenue more the tax. Furthermore it is interested in maintaining healthy competition and abiding of the fair law. The deal is expected to improve the future revenue and requires clearance from antitrust and other regulatory organisations, thus it is not threat to the governments interests.Locality and society at largeLocality and society expect the combined group to maintain and improve its CSR policies. The organisations are responsible to the surroundings and the environment in which they operate.4.3 Financial ConsequencesThe graph reflects the loss making position on BA. There has been an increase in revenue for the year 2009 as compared to 2008. The loss thus can be attributed to the high operating expenses which increased to 9,212 million in 2009 from 7,880 million in 2008. However the Operating income increased just to 8,992 million in 2009 from 8,758 million in 2008.Key Performance Indicators/Key harvest-feast IndicatorsThe KPIs and KGIs can be used to compare the performance of the organisations. Kpis indicate the expediency in performance, while Kgis indicate the growth of the organisation.The KPI in this scenario can be noted asLiqu idity RatioThe liquidity ratio shows the companys ability to pay its debt. Hence higher the ratio better the performance of the organisation. earnings per Share (EPS)The performance can be measured based on the return to the shareholders. The increase in EPS reflects the efficiency in performance form of passengers per yearThe figures show that the number of passenger carried per year will easily increase after the merger and thus making TopCo a leading airline in terms of passenger. This is reflected in the figures shown below.Figure 1.1Figure 1.25. ratiocinationObjective 1The strategic analysis showed that the merger is bound to bring various benefits to the consolidated group. The merger will help the companies to reduce the costs and hence reduce the loss to a certain extent. The merger will increase the market share of TopCo and make it the third largest airline company given benefits to its customers and shareholders. There are certain weaknesses which can be bastinado and the merger opens up various opportunities and synergies for the future growth.Objective 2The analysis shows that the shareholders and customers are bound to benefit from the merger decision. However, there is a long amount of risk of redundancies and pay cuts due to heavy cost cuts by both the organisations.Objective 3The financial analysis reflects the need to well reduce the operating costs. The merger plan is set to set to save 400 million euro a year from reduced costs. Hence the merger decision can be beneficial in driving the organisations through the economic crisis.

Black and Minority Ethnic People in Prison

smuggledness and nonage paganalal People in PrisonFor every Afro-Caribbean male on campus in that location atomic weigh 18 two in jail. (Phillips, 2004). Sir Trevor Phillips memorable decl ar is interesting on two takes. First, in how it utmostlights the hale curtilage that char or Minority heathenish (BME) persons form a dis proportion in ally high section of the prison house world in England and Wales. Secondly, as an example of the polemical terms in which this question is often surroundd. In this essay I will undertake to get behind the rhetoric.Whilst Sir Trevor may throw chosen (or embellished) his statistics for rhetorical purposes, thither is a disproportionately high list of BME prisoners. Home piazza statistics2 see whatsoever 27% of the prison universe of discourse in England and Wales identified themselves as being from social nonage companys3. These figures should be approached c atomic number 18fully if one is laborious to consider incarcerati on rates in the resident population. Foreign nationals handbilled for 38% of the BME prison population (Minis approximate of Justice, 2009). However, even excluding the impact on the statistics of foreign nationals, the differences in incarceration rates be startling, peculiarly for British nationals who self-identify as colour4 6.8 per 1,000 comp atomic number 18d to 1.3 per 1,000 for blanched plurality5 much(prenominal) than five multiplication much(prenominal) somber volume in prison per head of population than lily-white people. Similarly, thither were to a greater extent than people of mixed ethni urban center in prison per head of population than White people, with a rate per 1,000 of 3.7. However, this substantial overre giveation was not shargond by dissimilar non-White ethnic groups. People from Chinese or Other Ethnic backgrounds were least seeming to be imprisoned, with a rate of 0.5 per 1,000. The rate for people from Asiatic groups6was also high tha n for White persons but importantly tear down than for the obtuse or obscure groups at 1.8 per 1,000 population. The differences in these rates are so marked that on that point is clearly a question to execute here why are ghastly people, and certain(prenominal)(prenominal) (but not all told) opposite ethnic minorities much(prenominal) in all probability to be incarcerated than their White fel economic crisis-citizens?Three detain custodytome explanations present themselves as possibilitiesdisproportionate depravity that persons of BME ethnicity draw in a disproportionately high percentage of disgustsdisproportionate detection and prosecution that they are disproportionately more presumable to be caught, charged or prosecuted with much(prenominal) plagues anddisproportionate conviction and sentencing that they are more in all likelihood to be convicted, or if convicted more possible to be imprisoned or imprisoned for long-acting.Of course, the truth could commix these explanations but it is of import to establish which of them is most salient, and to delve more deeply into the aims underlying such explanation.Are BME people just more presumable to offend than White people?The simplest explanation for the disproportionately high number of BMEs imprisoned is that BME individuals are more likely to transport aversions.If we assume that in that location is a direct relationship amidst obliges and iniquity, and we accept patrol describe crime levels, in that location is strong evidence to mention that BMEs are more likely to commit crimes than Whites. (Here we are using the Home Office crime definitions, encompassing furious crime, intimate military group, acquisitive crime, vandalism and wicked damage, fraud, racially or religiously motivated crimes, and dose offences.) In 2007-8, 82% of all take prisoners were of people of white appearance, with 9% dumb, 5% Asian and 1% categorize as Other (Ministry of Justice, 2009) . This can be compared the governments estimates for the ethnic makeup of the customary UK population in 2006/07 where 88.7% are White, 2.7% Black, 5.5% Asian and 1.5% Other (Gask, 2008). Whilst the arrest rime for White, Asian and Other ethnicities were roughly proportional to their prevalence7in the population, Black people were 2.5 times more likely to be arrested than the population as whole.If we accept a strong correlation amidst arrest and barbarousity rates, then we may conclude that Black people, but not former(a) ethnic groups, are more likely to offend than Whites. This requires an explanation and broadly speaking trinity types of explanation turn out been propounded socio-stinting, family factors and historical/cultural factors (including policing strategies).The association amid socio-economic disadvantage and intimacy in crime is well-established (Home Office Report). According to Beckers (1968) analytical framework, crime rates reflect the risks and costs of being caught, and the disparity betwixt potential improver from crime and the associated opportunity cost. Those with least to lose are more likely to offend. Economists harbour interpreted measures of income inequality as indicators of the aloofness mingled with the gains from crime and its opportunity costs (Fajnzylber et al, 2002). This view is supported by statistics associating UK homicide rates with poverty (Dorling et al, 2005). Black African and Caribbean groups make up close 2.5 times the proportion of the population in the most deprived areas of the arena as for England as a whole (Jacobs Tinsley, 2006). Relative poverty appears to proffer a good explanation why Black people cleverness be more likely to commit crime, and in particular economic crime8. It seems likely also that the unemployed are more likely to engage in viciousness. The adage that the devil makes work for idle hands is supported by the literature9. It is therefore remarkable that Home Office s tatistics on un interlocking rates repoint that Black men abideed well-nigh three times more un affair than White British or Irish men (Home Office, 2005).Poor preceptal achievement is a symptom and cause of socio-economic disadvantage. some fence in that educational underachievement is also independently a major cause of sin. The failure of the education formation to educate our black boys stands a teaching ground for disaffection that undoubtedly leads many (not all) to seek alternative center to obtain a good standard of living or gain respect from their peers (Home Office, 2003). Certainly poor education is associated with delinquency. Maguin Loeber (1996) fork overed through their meta-analysis of studies of this relationship that children with meek academic performances offended more frequently, committed more serious offences, and weared in their offend. However, whether poor education is an independent cause is not established the besides correlational role of education was argued by pioneering analysts in the 1830s (Feldman, 1993). It may be that poor education affects delinquency indirectly by limiting employment opportunities, which in turn leads to more probability of criminal behaviour.If educational underachievement causes criminality then it is pertinent that Blacks participate far less in higher(prenominal) education than Whites (Bhattacharyya et al, 2003)10. Furthermore, Black people are far likelier to be tossd from instill (Department for Education and Skills, 2006)11. There is an established association between school exclusions and involvement in crime12and, whilst it is unclear whether criminality leads to exclusion from school or vice versa, either way the evidence of more school exclusions amongst Black people supports the prompting that Black peoples disproportionate incarceration arises from disproportionate criminality. If education is a factor, however, it is unclear whether fault lies with the educational opport unities addressable the allegedly low value that Black (or more specifically Afro-Caribbean) males place on perfunctory education or another(prenominal) factors.Family and parenting factors tolerate another possible explanation of the over representation of BMEs in prison. BME children are more likely to grow up in single-parent households for example, 54.5% of mixed White/Black Caribbean children grew up in lone-parent households (Home Office, 2003). This has been shown to have a negative impact on later life outcomes. Kellam et al (1982) frame that Black children from mother- only if families were more likely to be judged by their teachers as maladaptive, than other groups. More specifically, a high proportion of BME children are born to teen mothers (Higginbottom et al, 2005).13Jaffee et al (2001)s 20-year longitudinal study showed that the offspring of teen mothers are at particular risk for adverse outcomes including early school leaving, unemployment, early parenthood, a nd violent offending. Another possible family factor is that, the high proportion of BME adults already in the criminal justice system may feed back into offending behaviours among unexampled people. Criminal and asocial parents tend to have delinquent and antisocial children14. Furthermore, concentrated incarceration in impoverished communities breaks familial ties, weakens parents social-control capacity, weakens economic power, and sours attitudes towards mainstream society, change magnitude the likelihood of offending (Clear, 2007).Taken together these socioeconomic, educational and family factors seem to provide a fairly full explanation of any great level of criminality among Black or BME groups. However this has not prevented other theories being advanced.One suggestion is that we should blame urban Black culture, especially medicine and film, for providing role models who glamorise violence, and encourage criminal lifestyles. The Home Office suggests (Home Office, 2003) that dynamic social exclusion comes about when five-year-old people lay claim to particular identities and make choices about lifestyles which compound their disadvantage and their existence on the margins of society, and quotes evidence that the arrival of American TV on St Kitts led to a sharp rise in gang violence, medicines and murders15and of links between symphony videos and criminal behaviour, especially gang behaviours such as of South capital of the United Kingdom gangs having music production arms advocating violence against rivals. Pitts (2006) report cards how gangs film robberies and use the footage to get up their music. However, as an explanation this is not as convincing as those discussed above. It is not obvious why BME youths should be more susceptible than White youths to music glamourising criminality. It seems more likely that a popular culture that gives endorses criminality is a reflection, rather than a cause16.Others prefer to blame White society, or more specifically colonialism. During the 1960s Fanon popularised a model which conceptualised the relations between Blacks and Whites in post-colonial societies (Fanon, 1963). The model has recently give way revived by scholars such as Agozino (2003) and Gabbidon (2010). The colonialist model argues that historical colonial repression, can cause crime in the present. Tatum (1994) argues that the victims of social, economic and governmental oppression will develop feelings of alienation to which the criminality and violence is an adaptive response. The model predicts that the colonised will become estranged from their own culture, and begin to self-hate twain as individuals and at the group level. racial groups become estranged from each other, and racial violence increases, establish on a mutual lack of trust and as individuals try to fight back and reclaim their culture and identity (Tatum, 1994). Pouissant (1972) argues that this internalisation of enkindle can explain the increasing Black on Black violence in Afro-American societies in particular.It is certainly easy to see that past colonialism, can be linked to social structures of oppression that persist into the present (Feagin Feagin, 2003, p. 35). Past economic, political and social subordination has left lasting imbalances in post-colonial societies and these differences in status, cause segregation, which leads directly to a negative impact on crime and wisdom of crime level (Massey Denton, 1993). Crime rises as the ethnic minority becomes increasingly separated from good basic services and employment opportunities (Wilson, 1998).However, it seems easier (and to accord better with the principle of Occams razor) to attribute greater criminality to greater disadvantage, and the greater disadvantage to history than to rely on group-wide psychological theories base on historic grievances. Direct tests of the components of the colonial model only show limited support (Austin, 1983) for the s urmise (although proponents of the theory argue that colonialism should be seen as an antecedent variable, and thus these tests may lack reliability (Bosworth Flavin, 2007)). Besides the bother testing this theory, the colonial model does not explain the diverse responses antithetical groups have to similar forms of alienation why would ethnic minorities feel more alienated than let down-class Whites? Nor do they explain why a society that produces Malcolm X can also produce a Martin Luther King.Are black and ethnic minority individuals more likely to get caught and charged with criminal offences?After exploring reasons why BMEs might commit disproportionately high levels of crime, it is important to note that the statistics showing disproportionate criminality are highly contested. I began the previous section with the important caveat If we accept a strong correlation between arrest rates and criminality rates, but this proposition is contentious.Any statistics generated by c riminal justice agencies provide only partial information about the nature of offenders, as the vast majority who commit crime are never caught or processed by the criminal justice system individuals diverted from the criminal justice system will not feature in such statistics (Ministry of Justice, 2009). There is evidence to suggest that there is describe bias in the reporting of certain crimes amongst certain ethnic minorities. Although some authors have suggested that mistrust of the criminal justice system may lead to less reporting of intra racial crimes, especially deep down ethnic minority groups, other evidence suggests that racial biases lead to disproportionately greater crime reporting in BME groups. For example, statistics suggest a higher propensity for black women to report versed offences. Although this could indicate higher levels of sexual crime in Black communities, as it could reflect start out allowance of sexual misbehaviour by Black women or underreporti ng of sexual offences in the wider community (Home Office, 2003). Furthermore, statistics are also often skewed by the digest of law enforcement. A daub down on street crimes in BME-dominated areas, will distort the statistics (Chambliss et al, 2004).One way to evaluate the validity of the arrest data, and answer our second question is to consider discrepancies between self-reported and official crime rates. If such discrepancies are found, the most likely explanation would be a racial bias in the legal philosophy force or treetop Prosecution System. Unfortunately the evidence here is inconclusive. Sharp Budd (2005)s analysis of the 2000 anger Crime and Justice Survey seems to evidence a disparity between self-reported, and official criminal activity White respondents and those of mixed ethnic rakehell generally self-reported the highest levels of offending17. Asians and those from Other ethnic groups reported significantly lower levels of offending18than Whites, or those of m ixed ethnic origin, on all offences, notwithstanding robbery (Sharp Budd, 2005 9). Black respondents were significantly less likely to self-report offending than White respondents across all offence categories, except burglary and the supply of drugs19. White respondents and those of Mixed ethnic origin self-reported overall similar levels of offending, but those of mixed ethnicity were more likely to be serious offenders 27% versus 21%, although this may be subject to some non-response bias (Sharp Budd, 2005 9).However, such self-report surveys suffer conceptual and methodological difficulties. Respondents may be un unfeigned and there may be an ethnic bias to the extent to which answers are honest. Whilst in the UK it is generally accepted that self-report surveys are reliable and valid measures of delinquency (Farrington, 2001), studies elsewhere suggest that ethnic minority groups are less likely to provide accurate answers to questions on criminality. Hindelang et al (1981) found that Black males were three times less likely to take over to offences, even when they were already known to the police. To overcome this problem Sharp Budd (2005) asked respondents how truthful they had been in completing the survey. Although there was little difference by ethnicity in the percentage of respondents claiming to have been honest (around 95%), slightly hardly a(prenominal)er onetime(a) Black respondents said they were positively truthful, and overall, Black individuals were less likely to report honesty when answering problems about drug use. Of course, answers to these questions could themselves be affected by a social desirability bias individuals may not necessitate to admit to lying but, these general trends replicated the findings of other self-report studies, such as Flood-Page et al (2000). Another flaw in this evidence is that it shows only the percentage of individuals voluminous in any kind of crime. It may be that the smaller than expect per centages of BME individuals admitting to offending, commit a greater percentage of crime and therefore provide more opportunities to be caught.The evidence, therefore, is not strong but does suggest that BME people are less likely to be problematical in criminality than Whites and yet are arrested disproportionately. We must ask then why would BME individuals be more likely to be caught and charged with criminal behaviour? roll Phillips (2002) suggested that this could be explained by institutional racialism amongst the police. The charge of police racial discrimination has been levelled particularly at the Metropolitan Police.20The finding of institutional racism do at the Stephen Lawrence enquiry was generally accepted and TV documentaries such as the Panorama series have helped establish this as a wide-spread perception that is obvious and self-evident. For example the former Home Secretary, Jack Straw pronounced Any long-established, white-dominated organisation is liable to have procedures, practices and a culture that tends to exclude or disadvantage non-white people. (Straw, 1999)Other commentators dismiss the idea that the police are institutionally racist. The earlier (1981) Scarman report supported a bad orchard apple tree theory that racial prejudice occurred amongst only a minority of officers (Neal, 2003). Racial prejudice does manifest itself occasionally in the behaviour of a few officers on the street. It may be only too easy for some officers, faced with what they must see as the inexorably rising scend of street crime to lapse into an unthinking assumption that all young black people are potential criminals (Macpherson, 1999 16). Whilst the bad apple theory is not now prevalent, it is important to be careful not to reason individual (or group action) or racism towards the whole institution. Some argue that reports such as the Morris Report (2004) have conflated individual racism to institutional racism (Lea, 2000 Stenson Waddington, 20 07). Lea argues that the Stephen Lawrence inquiry, in particular, examined the specific actions of individual officers and unscientifically extrapolated from this a conclusion that the police force itself is racist. It has been argued that the negative interpretation of institutional racism has further increased tension between police and ethnic minorities (Foster et al, 2005).In fact, the direct evidence that institutional racism leads to disproportionate arrests of BME people is mixed. Jefferson, cart Seneviratne (1992) studied differences in discourse in individuals arrested in Leeds, and found conflicting evidence. By analyzing the (police-perceived) race, sex, age, offence and address of everyone arrested or stopped in the city over 6 months in 1987, they found that Blacks were over-represented (7% of those arrested, compared to 3% in the population), Asians were proportionately represented and Whites were under-represented. However, when the neighbourhood ethnic balance wa s controlled for, Blacks were only over-represented in White areas. In Black-dominated areas, Whites were in fact over- represented. However, the information was found on where offenders lived, not where they offended. Furthermore, the low Black arrest rate in Black areas maybe due to mistrust of police in intra-racial crimes (Jefferson et al, 2002).If we turn to indications of differential treatment by the Police in relation to actions other than arrest, patterns do emerge. Newburn, reversal Hayman (2004) analysed the propensity to be strip-searched in custody, finding that on average, Afro-Caribbeans suffered twice the number of strip-searches as Whites, whilst Arabic or Oriental people had a virtual(prenominal) halving of the probability of being strip-searched (Newburn et al, 2004 689). Other studies have considered possible police ethnic biases in relation to stop-and-search arrests. Overwhelmingly the data suggest that BMEs are significantly more likely to be stopped than Whites. In 2006/2007 Blacks were seven times more likely to be stopped and searched, and Asians were twice as likely to be stopped as Whites (Jones Singer, 2008).However, the validity of these findings can be questioned. Bennetto, 2009 observes that police officers may just be more likely to record shekels made of BMEs than those conducted on White people, but it seems unlikely that such misrecording would persist so consistently across forces, and over the last five years, particularly with the strong incentives on the police not to display racism. A more telling reproval is that stop-and-search data involves an invalid comparison it compares the ethnicity of the whole population with that of those stopped, rather than looking at the proportion of those stopped within the available population those who are out at times, and in places where stops are likely to occur (Fitzgerald Sibbitt, 1997). Indeed, Jefferson et al (1992) found a statistically significant low-to-moderate cor relation (r=0.20) between number of evenings out and annoyance with police. Although Pavey (2008) counters this by inclination that it is unlikely that Black people are more available to be stopped in some areas than others, it is not outlandish to suggest that in some cultures may be more normal than others for people (particularly young men) to hang round on the street rather than staying in. Others counter this criticism by observating that, even if the ethnicity mix where and when the searches are made is different to that in the general population, it does not disprove police racist motivation the police might have chosen when and where to conduct such stops is found on where BME youths congregate (Home Office, 2003). This argument would be convincing if it could be back by evidence that police decisions on where to operate are based on something other than their assessment of when and where crimes are most prevalent, but I am not aware of any such evidence.Are Black and Eth nic minorities unfairly dealt with by the justice system?The evidence of institutional racism in the justice system is also mixed at scoop out. Although Hood (2008) argues that the over-representation of Afro-Caribbeans in prisons is a direct product of their over representation among those convicted of crime and sentenced in the pennant Courts, a recent study of almost 16,000 jurors found that although BME individuals are 3.5 times more likely to face a jury verdict, relative to their representation in the global population, jury verdicts showed only small differences based on defendant ethnicity (Thomas, 2010)21. This indicates that one stage in the criminal justice system where BME groups do not face glum disproportionality is when a jury reaches a verdict.The evidence that BMEs are likely to suffer more punitive sentences than White people is superficially more persuasive. Black young offenders accounted for 11.6% of custodial sentences, despite only be for 6% of total offen ces (Home Office, 2003).However this does not prove unfairness whilst it could reflect biased sentencing, it could equally have other causes, perhaps that BMEs are likelier to commit crimes that justify a custodial sentence. Jefferson et al (1992) found that apparently racially-based differences in outcome of arrest could be otherwise explained. Although in juvenile cases, Blacks were twice as likely to be tried in a Crown Court as Asians or Whites, most were being tried jointly with an older co-defendant, necessitating the Crown Court, and six of the twelve Black subjects included in this data were arrested in one incident. Also the Home Office statistics say nothing about prior convictions, which may affect sentencing. Although evidence that Whites are more likely to re-offend22suggests that this may not explain disproportionate custodial sentences for BME people, studies which take account of prior convictions find no evidence of racially biased sentencing. Mair (1986) found tha t Blacks and Whites who had committed similar offences, and had similar criminal records, had the same chance of a custodial sentence. Jefferson et al (1992)s regression analysis of data collected in their Leeds study found that when offence type and previous convictions were taken into account, there were no differences in sentencing or length of custodial sentence between different ethnic groups23.Furthermore, once imprisoned, there is evidence to suggest that there is no racially-explained difference in the availability of parole. Although Hood Shute (2000) found that both Blacks and Whites were less likely to be granted parole than South Asian/Chinese prisoners, this is not necessarily due to ethnic bias. Moorthy et al (2006) argued persuasively that this could be better attributed to other characteristics associated with release.The clearest explanation of the disparity in sentencing is that BME individuals are likely to be engaged in different types of crimes than Whites, and more specifically are more likely to be engaged in crimes that have a high likelihood of incarceration, or even mandatory prison sentences. Young people of different ethnic groups do appear to have different profiles of offending behaviour. Jefferson et al (1992) found that BME individuals were more likely to be arrested under charges of violence and theft, whereas, Whites were more likely to be charged with burglary or damage. This is corroborated by Home Office statistics which suggest that. BME individuals seem to be overrepresented for certain crimes notably robbery and drugs offences (Home Office, 2003), and are more likely to be involved with firearms and gang violence, whereas white people are more likely to commit and be convicted of less serious offences, for example criminal damage or property offences like burglary. The propensity for BMEs to be engaged in drug offences in particular goes a long way towards explaining the relatively high percentage of custodial sentenc es inclined to BMEs. Drug offences typically have longer custodial sentences than those for even the most violent crimes, even for importing relatively small amounts of drugs.24There is a substantially higher proportion of Black inmates serving drug-related sentences (Home Office, 2003).25This is particularly unfeigned for female prisoners (Chigwada-Bailey, 2003)26. Of the women in prison for all offences, 40% were convicted of drug offences (Home Office, 2003). Furthermore, this is not only the case for foreign nationals over half of all Black British women prisoners incarcerated in 2005 were due to drug offences (Fitzgerald, 2007 56).Although levels of drug use among 16 24 year olds are lower for Black youths than those from White or mixed backgrounds, there is evidence to show that Black people disproportionately misuse certain drugs, specifically break through cocain (Sangster, Shiner, Sheikh, Patel, 2002). Almost half of arrestees reported using crack cocaine are Black yo ung White offenders at Feltham Young Offenders build are more likely to have opiate problems, whereas Black youths are more likely to have problems with crack cocaine (Home Office, 2005). There is also evidence that cannabis misuse is a particular problem among ethnic minority communities. The 2001/2 British Crime Survey found that people from a mixed white and black Caribbean background were also most likely to have used cannabis in their lifetime (54%), compared with only 30% of Whites (Home Office RDSD, 2008). Furthermore, there is evidence that BME people are disproportionately more likely to be involved in supplying drugs. Despite accounting for only 11% of all Londoners, 67% of those accused of supplying crack cocaine are Black (Home Office, 2007).ConclusionThe relationship of race to criminality is perplexing. Many commentators in the field have a particular political point to make, and much of the debate is conducted in terms that are more interested in promoting a particu lar agenda than reaching the truth. very much statistics are gathered for particular reasons. Since 1991, the Criminal Justice Act has need police officers to monitor the ethnicity of people they stop and search and these have been gathered in the context of a force desperately keen to gesture off a racist label. It is difficult to see that this would not have had an effect on the quality of the data. In other contexts, data are deliberately withheld or not collected, for example the Press is discouraged from referring to ethnicity when reporting crime27. Where information is collected, different studies categorise ethnic groups in different ways, some including and some excluding foreign nationals.However with all these caveats, the conclusion that best seems to fit the facts is that in England and Wales, BMEs do as a group disproportionately commit crimes that are more likely to lead to custodial sentences than other ethnic groups but this disproportionality all but disappears if we factor in socio-economic disadvantage, educational levels reached, and family factors, and there is no need to reach for more complex explanations such as post-colonial angst or police racism. In particular, the evidence supporting the permeative view that police racism causes disproportionate arrests is unconvincing, especially as if it were true it would mean that we would need to find explanations why BME groups must have a lower level of criminality than one might expect given the socio-economic disadvantage, educational levels and family factors that apply.Astonishingly, there seems to be no makeup that directly looks at crime rates by race, when socio-economic status is controlled for. Such a paper would be a major step forward to moving this debate from the polemical onto a scientific basis. Of course su

Cult Practices in Late Bronze Age Cyprus

Cult Practices in new-fangled dye Age CyprusAssess the evidence for fad vitrines on Cyprus during the LBA ( slow tan Age).There is a sort of evidence for madness habituates on Cyprus during the LBA although it is oft diffi frenzy to interpret and studently opinion of the signifi stoogece or signification of any(prenominal) particular piece of evidence whitethorn vary widely. In absolute terms, the LBA on Cyprus approximately covers the accomplishment from 1650-1050BC, wellhead-nigh six ascorbic acid years, and in relative terms is divided by Steel into the phases LC ( slow prostitute) I-IIIA (Tatton-Brown 1997, 91 Steel 2004, 13). The later phase down to c1050BC, tradition eachy termed LCIIIB, whitethorn be considered a transitional Bronze/Early Iron Age. Such a considerable amount of time offers considerable scope for wobble in spectral thought and practice, which may be more or less(prenominal) visible in the archaeological record, and although some material c hange through and through time may be observable, any variation still poses the risk of imposing a maybe non-existent uniformity on the material. A insufficiency of any written references such as inscriptions, dedications or other texts to deities in LBA Cyprus further complicates matters (Tatton-Brown 1997, 62). Nevertheless, the archaeological evidence usually discussed in terms of phantasmal or rageic beliefs and practices in LBA Cyprus conditionms to fall into several interlinked categories clay figurines, architectural clay (eg of sanctuaries) and artefacts, such as statuettes, imported pottery or bucrania, effect in association with those architectural remains. The identification of any particular deities has been fraught with diffi religious furyy, just several bronze statuettes, the a plump well- cognize beingness known as the Ingot graven image and the Bomford figurine, be often thought to re vex Cypriot or sometimes foreign gods and to render a link surr ounded by cult and metalworking. This essay shall at that placefore examine these in turn, focussing on LCII and LCIIIA in particular.There atomic number 18 various guinea pigs of figurine from LBA Cyprus and as with figurines from elsewhere, their interpretation and significance is disputed. Considering the earlier stump and plank type human figures, Tatton-Brown (1997, 62) suggests that whether they were affluence charms or goddesses in practical terms their function would piddle been the alike(p). It is possibly appropriate to bear this in disposition with the LBA figurines. Karageorghis (2001, 323) has noned twain types of female symbolism in the unearthly iconography of LBA Cyprus one type of unclothed female figurine holding or supporting her breasts first appears on Cyprus in the Chalcolithic and continues down to the sixth century BC (see Tatton-Brown 1997, 49, fig. 49) a nonher type, the kourotrophos (or boy-feeder see Tatton-Brown 1997, 62 fig. 67 for an early plank-shaped kourotrophos) appeared firstly in the LBA and was also present in the Aegean as well as Cyprus. The former are sometimes known as Astarte type figures, after the Syrian goddess. This accent mark on female characteristics such as breasts and genitals, as well as the feeding infant or infant in arms, is veritablely significative of an interest in fertility and the feminine aspect, often thought to be arrayed by a Great matinee idoldess of Cyprus. Although in that respect is no textual evidence regarding female deities from LBA Cyprus, much later fourth century BC dedications at Paphos refer to Wanassa the Lady, which seems to be an old title known in the LBA Linear B record of mainland Greece (Tatton-Brown 1997, 63). classicals knew this goddess as Aphrodite or the Cyprian in the eighth century BC while Cypriots knew her as the Paphian, from the religious centre at Paphos. Whatever the female figurines represent and they may not even represent goddesses, it has yet been concluded that anthropomorphic clay figurines are not a typical element of LC cult equipment in LCII or LCIII but become popular towards the end of the LBA (Steel 2004, 205, 211). Indeed, it seems that especially at Enkomi in LCIIIB, in the Sanctuary of the Ingot God, smaller and larger figurines (wheel-made with upraised arms) became especially popular, perhaps representing worshippers and deities. The larger figurines seem to be related to Cretan examples (Karageorghis 2001, 325). Most of the cxx figurines were thriftyly broken, which may be indicative of changes in cult practice at this time (Webb 1999, 107).Anthropomorphic figurines are not the only type of figurine that may be related to cult practices on LBA Cyprus. other key type may be the turd figurine. Steel (2004, 178) suggests that most LC cult sanctuaries are equipped with at least a whizz terracotta bull figure. Hadjisavvas (1989) describes the tentative identification of twain sanctuaries and a househol d cult area at Alassa-Pano Mandilaris from LCIIC-IIIA, where in total more than ten bull figurines were found on floors (see Hadjisavvas 1989, 38 fig. 3.6). Evidence of metalworking and a small ox-hide ingot were also found associated. Since bull figurines tend to be found on the floors of sanctuaries alternatively than deposited in pits (bothroi) or wells, Webb suggests they served as cult equipment rather than offerings (Webb 1999, 219). Bucrania had appeared on clay safety models from the Early Bronze Age testifying to the long significance of the bull in the Cypriot mindscape (Preziosi and Hitchcock 1999, 202) and the LBA figures emphasise the continuing impressiveness of the bull in LCIIIA cult practices, reflected in the finds of kine bones and skulls at sites such as the Sanctuary of the Horned God at Enkomi (Steel 2004, 205). It may be significant that at several sites, including the Sanctuary of the Double Goddess at Enkomi, no bull figurines were found.The focus of c ommunal ceremonial operation seems to take up changed in LCIIA from the extramural cemeteries that seemed to dominate the ceremonial of LCI to sites item to religious activity sanctuaries, that now appear in the archaeological record (Steel 2004, 175). There are notable examples of specialised cult centres from LCIIA at Myrtou-Pighades, Athienou and perhaps Ayios Iakovos-Dhima and in LCIIC-IIIA at the urban centres of Kition, Enkomi and Palaepaphos (Steel 2004, 176). As seen above, the religious nature of a place may often be suggested by the finds associated with it, such as bull figurines or small ingots, supposing that they are a specialised assemblage distinct from house servant assemblages. Particular architectural features or installations, such as horns of consecration (a feature from the Aegean, particularly Crete), altars and a cult room, may also be utilise to invest LC sanctuaries. The remains of forfeit, stores cult objects and images and specialised prestige an d religious objects, such as figurines, bucrania and imported pottery should also be indicative of a safety (Knapp 1996, 75-6 cited in Steel 2004, 175). However, the identification of cult buildings is not always aboveboard since as Webb (1999, 11) points out there appear to be few artefacts or architectural or locational indicators exclusively diagnostic of cult activity. Virtually all object types, with the probable exception of horns of consecration, are found in internal and funerary as well as apparently religious rite contexts and there is a danger of circular argumentation. Bearing in mind the problems of identification, Webb (1999, 157-6 166-88) has nevertheless suggested a number of characteristics of LC cult buildings. Such buildings are mostly impertinent and free going and combine an enclosed courtyard or temenos. They tend to be laid out on an east-west axis and often comprise two or three units of rooms the hall, sometimes supported by rows of pillars, the cella or adyton and a vestibule. A range of internal installations may be present, including benches, for storehouse and display hearths, often with burnt animal bone suggestive of give up stone podia for food and drink offerings or the display of votives or cult equipment stone platforms or altars with horns of consecration, as at Myrtou-Pighades terracotta larnakes or bathtubs and pits or bothroi, for the government activity of debris from kick ins. Also characteristic of LCII cult places are faunal remains of sheep, goat, cattle and deer, perhaps in the form of ash and burnt bone, the remains of sacrifice and feasting. The main function of cult buildings may confound been to house the divinity and any ritual or public assembly may mother made use of the courtyard or temenos area (Webb 1999, 162). There may have been restricted access to particular areas reflecting the specialised role of religious functionaries, as in other ancient Near Eastern societies. Keswani (1993, 74) has commented that what is physical contact about LC religious sites is their diversity in architectural form, which might show for the existence of independent local polities. However the relationship amid morality and its expression in material terms, let alone the relationship among religion and politics, is unclear and, to use an analogy, the similarity of Gothic cathedrals or Christian churches across various countries does not reflect political unity. Furthermore, whether the new-fashioned scholars distinction amid cult building and non-cult building reflects any particular distinction between sacred and secular that may or may not have existed in LBA Cyprus is moot.Turning now to the artefacts that are often found in the sanctuaries, Steel (2004, 177) notes that in contrast to the variety in architecture, the cult equipment of LCII sanctuaries is fairly uniform. Although she comments that this may suggest a certain degree of uniformity of cult practices and religious belie fs it should be borne in mind that material similarities and even similarities of ritual action do not inescapably betoken similarities in religious belief the number of religions ancient and modern that utilise, for example, ritualised drinkable (eg Christianity), while having very different sets of beliefs, should warn us of this. That said, the cult equipment is largely made up of ceramics that suggest certain features of cult practice. molten containers are common finds, especially Base Ring carinated cups which may have been apply for wine consumption during feasting, for pouring libations or both (Steel 2004, 177). The pottery in these contexts is usually fine Cypriot ware with some Mycenaean imports, mainly in the form of kraters, probably for mixing wine. or so Mycenaean rhyta, often conical vessels used for pouring libations, have been found, for example at Myrtou-Pighades and Kition (see Preziosi and Hitchcock 1999, 201 fig. 134) and a locally made imitation in os w as found at Athienou, although they may not have been fully collective into Cypriot ritual (Steel 2004, 178). Other vessels such as Mycenanaean kylikes may have been used for libation ceremonies. The ceramic focus on drinking seems reminiscent of the mainland Greek LBA palace of Pylos, with its storerooms full of drinking cups. Another shared feature is the practice of using miniature votives, either ceramics or ingots, such as at Alassa-Pano Mandilaris (Hadjisavvas 1989, 38). Apart from ceramics, Steel (2004, 178) also mentions the presence of objects that may have been used in divination incised ox-scapulae, astragalis and worked shells, and other valuable items such as faience, ivory, glass, alabaster, bronzes and sealstones, which may have been involved in competitive display, at least on the urban sanctuaries.Three of the most famous and enigmatic bronze finds, perhaps representing deities, are the Ingot God from Enkomi, the unprovenanced Bomford statuette and the Horned God f rom Enkomi, all of which would seem to belong to LCIIIA (Carless Hulin 1989 Steel 2004, 180, 205 plate 25). The Ingot God is a warrior with a horned helmet, holding a small round shield and impale. He appears to be standing on a characteristically shaped bronze ox-hide ingot. The Bomford statuette resembles an Astarte figurine but also seems to stand upon an ingot. Many interpretations have been offered, including suggestions that the Ingot God is a Babylonian or Levantine god (Nergal) or the Greek smith-god Hephaistos others have linked it with Syria-Palestine or the Aegean (Carless Hulin 1989, 127). The Bomford figurine, reckoned to be a local Cypriot goddess, has been assumed to be the consort of the Ingot God, since it also stands on an ingot, and thus Carless Hulin (1989, 127) has suggested that its identification essential be seen in light of that figure. While these two figures have comprise significant problems in interpretation and in particular origins as deduced from room have been a major concern of those examining them, they do seem to show a connection between religion and metalwork (Steel 2004, 180). This is not in all surprising since such a link is suggested by the miniature ingots from cult areas mentioned above at Alassa-Pano Mandilaris or those from Enkomi, some with inscriptions. Further representations of ingots have been far-famed that seem to show them in a ritualised sense ie being carried in a procession (unless this is mere transportation or loading), on sealstones, and in combination with human figures, trees and bucrania, the association of which would seem to indicate ritual significance (Knapp 1986, 37). Another link between religion and metalwork is shown by the physical proximity of cult and metalworking areas. This was the case at Alassa-Pano Mandilaris (Hadjisavvas 1989, 41) and can be seen clearly at Kition-Kathari (see Steel 2004, 179 fig. 6.13) as well as many other sites. Hadjisavvas (1989, 41) concluded that ther e was a relationship between elite control (priesthood/priest-king) of craft production and trade in hair and other commodities and between cult and metalworking. As with drinking, the relationship seems reminiscent of that of Pylos as a specialised production centre with close links between production, storage and religious/political authority.The Horned God has also been classed as a warrior god (Steel 2004, 205), though it does not possess the military accoutrements (the spear and shield) of the Ingot God. The impractically horned helmet may in fact be arrogating or representing some aspect of the bull divinity in human aspect. The sanctuary of the Horned God at Enkomi in fact revealed cattle bones, skulls and possibly traces of an Aegean bulls head rhyton that might be interpreted as supporting this conjecture. Although these three bronze figures are commonly referred to as gods, the problem of interpretation nonetheless remains. Do the statues represent deities and were they v enerated? Are they votives or substitutes for worshippers or individuals? Perhaps they were simply items of cult equipment used in ceremonies, perhaps revealed during ceremonies of divine appearance or the enactment of myths. Their deposition seems to suggest deliberate closure ceremonies (Steel 2004, 206), suggesting that these rituals and statuettes are tied to specific times in LBA Cyprus and presumably responded to specific social needs. Thus it is perhaps unwise to draw period wide generalisations from such evidence.Another type of evidence appearing in LCIII that should be mentioned briefly is the terracotta masks from the urban sanctuaries of Enkomi and Kition (Steel 2004, 204). These have been divided into anthropomorphic and god-awful types, both of which are slightly less than adult life size. nearly have traces of paint and eight of the anthropomorphic masks show a beard male with cut-out eyes and a closed mouth. The demonic faces are deep grooved. The masks have been interpreted as ritual objects worn during rites of passage from childhood to adulthood the demonic masks representing the wild state of childhood and as masks used in mythological re-enactments connected to metalworking (Steel 2004, 205).This essay has attempted to strategy and assess the evidence for cult practice in LBA Cyprus. Inevitably not all of the evidence has been mentioned here but it is hoped that reasonable coverage has been habituated to the main points. It has shown that while there is much evidence linked to cult in the LBA, such as figurines, sanctuaries and specialised artefacts, their interpretation is often problematic. purge when it is fairly certain that items may have been involved in cult in one way or another, any more specific comment is often impossible, even when deciding if a figurine represent a divinity. It has also been demo that to link variety in architectural form to any interpretation of the political geography of LBA Cyprus may be problemat ic, since the wider relationships between material and non-material remain obscure. Furthermore, the essay examined the significance of several bronze statuettes, usually taken to be divinities, and the problems in their interpretation as well as the novel terracotta masks that appear in LCIII. On the other hand, it has been shown that there seems to have been lively religious activity on LBA Cyprus that involved drinking and feasting using particular ceramics and in particular places, the pouring of libations and sacrifice of animals, as well as the deposition of valuable items. There seems to have been a particular reverence for bulls and their imagery as well as the female aspect represented by figurines and the Bomford statuette, as well as a significant link between metalworking and religion, as demonstrated by both the proximity of cult and metalworking areas and the presence of miniature ingots. Another important aspect of LBA Cypriot religion seems to be the willingness to i ncorporate features from outside Cyprus, the Cretan horns of consecration, for example, rhyta, Mycenaean cups, kraters and the like and the ability of Cypriot religion to change over time.References Carless Hulin, L. 1989. The identification of Cypriot cult figures through cross-cultural simile some problems. In Peltenburg, E. (ed.) 1989. Early Society in Cyprus. Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press, pp127-39. Hadjisavvas, S. 1989. A Late Cypriot Community at Alassa. In Peltenburg, E. (ed.) 1989. Early Society in Cyprus. Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press, pp32-42. Karageorghis, V. 2001. The Great Goddess of Cyprus Between the Aegeans and the Etrocypriots. In Laffineur, R. and Hagg, R. (eds.) 2001. POTNIA. Deities and Religion in the Aegean Bronze Age Aegaeum 22. Gteborg Gteborg University pp323-27. Keswani, P.S. 1993. Models of Local Exchange in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. BASOR 292 73-83. Knapp, A.B. 1986. Copper Production and Divine Protection Archaeology, ideology and Social Com plexity on Bronze Age Cyprus. SIMA Pocketbook 42. Gteborg Paul Astrms Frlag. Preziosi, D. and Hitchcock, L.A. 1999. Aegean Art and Architecture. Oxford Oxford University Press. Steel, L. 2004. Cyprus Before History. From the earlier Settlers to the End of the Bronze Age. London Duckworth. Tatton-Brown, V. 1997. Ancient Cyprus. (2nd edition) London British Museum Press. Webb, J.M. 1999. rite Architecture, Iconography and Practice in the Late Cypriot Bronze Age. Jonsered Paul Astrms Frlag.

Rotating Wall Vessel Bioreactor

Rotating Wall Vessel BioreactorAbstractRecently in that respect ar evidential come up of query choke undergoing about create from raw stuff engineering and bioreactor excogitation. at that placefore, in that respect ar so may enquiry paper published almost the world. It may exercising embryonic bow stall, mesenchymal topic cubicleph mavin, tissue imbed or other animal quadrangles tissues or kiosk for knowledge of homophile and animal medicine interference. In that case on that point should be virtually ethics and laws to reign over the usage of the tissue or carrell in the medical intervention. Some government organizations and private sector by sepa enumerately or by joining do roughly research work about the tissue engine room and bioreactor constructing. The cardiovascular sy tooth root is the major disease line of work in the human and animal medicine treatment. In modern decade on that point argon jail electric booth and tissue engine ering and the bioreactor designing involving treating the cardiovascular disease learn. Researchers may try to split up sum total valve, paries and declination vessel etc. Hole in the nucleus is heterogeneous congenital spirit diseases, in new born babies and cartroading ca intents of mortality. The treatment of this form of the cardiovascular disease admitd per somaed surgery castigation, the in truth terrible after the surgery at tolerate by baby. When correcting the seafargonr, that essential pose shutd properly otherwise it lead to a nonher problem to the young one, scarce measurement of the diameter of the flock is really difficult and correction as well very difficult. In the recent decade there is tooth root cubicleular telephone therapy and the tissue engineering has rapidly developed. By employ stem cell and tissue finis there ar so m whatsoever researches and development of the treatment about cardiovascular remains. Myocardial tissue engine ering developed the nerve tissue by using the stem cells in three-dimensional matrices of biodegradable polymers sustain is the innovation of the myocardial constructs and cardiovascular treatment. penetrationThe boob is the most distinguished organs in the human body. It transports blood to the organs, tissues, and cells of the body. Blood delivers atomic weigh 8 and nutrients to every cell and removes the carbon paper dioxide and waste products excreted by those cells. A Holes in the Heart is an opening in the septum between atria or ventricles of content, this is congenital fix. 8-10/1000 live born babies has congenital defects in the core. This condition occurred during the babys heart does non develop inner(a) the womb no particular proposition ca give for this condition, but most increase risk of being born. If mother had German measles or toxoplasmosis during pregnancy, or if she has diabetes, or if someone else in her family was born with a heart complaint. A old salt in the heart may be named in the first few months of stylus or even before the baby is born, sometimes a hole out is not found until a person is much older. This often happens when the hole is between the upper house of heart. It may notice person are feeling a bit compendious of breath and dont know why. provided sometimes there are no complaints at all. Because of the hole, the f depressive disorder of blood through the heart is abnormal. This beats noises in the heart, so a touch tidy sum find the hole by listening to the heart with a stethoscope. If the doctor hears a murmur, this tells the doctor there could be a hole. If the doctor thinks there is a hole, person forget contrive an echocardiogram ultrasound nisus of heart. sometimes the hole isnt found until a person is much older when they notice they are feeling tired and breathless and stopt find a reason for it. Some holes are so sensitive that they cause no problem and are left alone. Some hol es in slight babies may close by themselves if the cardiologist thinks this is worryly, he depart not close it immediately, but wait for some time to see if it has un the likeable by itself, by repeating an echo. opposite holes must be closed, either because they are already a problem, or because they go away cause a problem in the future.There are three contrary typesAtrial septate Defect (ASD) this is a hole in the wall between the atria (interatrial septum). This causes much blood to combine to the lungs and may not drive home some(prenominal) symptoms the overindulgence f deplorable puke damage the lungs. If the hole is small, and doesnt collide with the function of heart, theres no destiny to batten down it.Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD) this is a hole in the interventricular septum or wall between two lower chambers (RV and LV). If its large, undersurface change the mechanics in heart. This makes the heart work harder than it should and can enlarge it. If the hole is small, and doesnt match the function of heart, theres no need to fix it.Atrioventricular Septal Defect this is a large hole in the middle of heart between the atria and ventricles. Some people with this condition but have one valve between the atria and ventricles instead of two. This defect can in any case damage the lungs by allowing too much blood to flow to the lungs. Although this condition is uncommon, t can be found in babies born with Downs syndrome.VSDs are the commonest lesion about 25-30% of all congenital heart defects whereas ASD are about 5-8% of them. some other point to remember is that all of us are born with small ASD. However, VSD is never found in normal heart. The only treatment gettablewas surgical closure. Though the ultimate outcome was respectable, these children had to inevitably suffer the pain, print and long hospital pose. There are two dashs to do this. The first way is via an operation called catheterisation. This is when a cardiolog ist puts a underpass into leg that goes up towards heart. thence(prenominal) put a imposture through that tube so that it fits into the hole. When its in the right place, the ruse opens similar a little umbrella, and blocks the hole. The device stays inside forever. This is not possible, because of the size, shape or position of the hole. In these much complicated situations, a surgeon will answer an operation where he puts a patch over the hole directly. If holes have between the two pump chambers of the heart that stay open, will need antibiotic treatment at accredited times. This power be before having other operations or serious treatment at the dentist.Most patients who have ASD/VSD corrections go on to lead sinlessly normal lives. Person will be followed-up for a short period, but if everythings OK after a year, wont need to like about it ever again. It also doesnt increase the chances of having any other heart-related issues in the future but should take regular exe rcise and aim for a healthy diet. After correction of the hole in the heart there are low risk for structural degeneration, thrombo-embolism and endocarditis and captureth potential for paediatric patient. From 1970s onwards, a group of cardiologists started thinking differently. They experimented on animals by creating holes in their hearts and then tried closing them without surgery. Gradually they replicated the whole routine on humans. For the last twenty years, nonsurgical closure or device closure has been the normal.Adult life heart muscle cells do not proliferate, if there is damage or injuries happened to the heart, functional tissue try to form the non-functional scar tissue. In 1996, 98 Klug et al. Suggest that development of human embryologic stem cell derived cardiomyocytes help for therapy of cardiac disease.There are some experiments done by using stem cells. Stem cells are the cell qualification for self-renewal and the potential for differentiating into mature c ell types. The embryonic stem cells can give rise to almost every mature cell type, trance adult stem cells are classified as restricted to distinction into only few types of mature cells. The mesenchymal stem cell can only differentiate to one specific mature cell type, are referred to as precursor cells. First clinical applications of stem cells for cardiac regeneration comprised cell transplantation trials. These trials were less successful than promising preclinical studies these efforts initiated intense research activities providing new insight into the mechanisms of tissue sourth and differentiation. Cardiac tissue engineering is foc utilise on three different organ subunits the myocardium, valves, and vessels. These three compounds of the heart can already be replaced by artificial or biologic transplant constructs with their respective limitations, like assist devices, commercial heart valves, autologous coronary bypasses, etc. When developing the heart tissue must tak e care produced cardiomyocytes, vascular endothelial cell and the smooth muscles cell. Engineering these tissues must manage with the durability, efficacy and safety of existing substitutes and be affordable at the aforesaid(prenominal) time. Tissue engineering is the development of biological substitutes that restore, concur, or improve tissue function or a whole organ, includes an in vitro.During designing of bioreactor, physiochemical surround keep on is very impotent, that will help to kept high lineament of the stem cells and high leg of reproducibility of the cells. nevertheless must make sure cell culture has developed under sterile purlieu and sufficient food and waste product exchange throughout the middling and clean and maintain the fair. After that, design some windup(prenominal) and hydro changing sop up to compression or expansion of the developing tissue, like clip stress to the tissue. Then maintain steady flow of media in pulsatile manner and cut ba ck the excessive turbulence in the smooth-spoken flow rate. Other than that, must provide the low al-Quran capacity for effective use for maturement factors and sensitive, also select the fabricate material compatible with the heart tissue or stem cell. The bioreactor designing for heart tissue development must determine some specific design and functional requirement. twain biomechanically skillful and biochemical factors affect the harvest of the cell thus essential to do some control mechanism by stimulate the physiological environs for heart cell growth, like pulsatile forces, compress, flow rate, compression, expansion, clip stress, frequency, stroke rate and stroke volume. Other than that, when creating heart tissue must consider cardiac flow rate and oblige. When consider the design the bioreactor, there are nutrition, type O, carbon dioxide, waste product, pH, temperature and humidity are main important biochemical controls affect the growth of the cell. There th an the flow rate, volume, shear stress, pressure, resistance and compliance like biomechanical controls also involved in the cell growth. Therefore, specific bioreactors are need for the growth of the stem cell. Because inside the body, cells are always stimulated by mechanical, electrical and chemical signals, these influencing their behaviour. In fact, biological tissues adapt their structure and organisation to surrounding specific and functional demands. By putting cells alone or only in interlocutor with materials in culture mass fair is not luxuriant to obtain a functional tissue. In vivo, the heart valves are subject to a unique combination of mechanical stimuli, including flexure, shear stress, and accent (Vesely and Boughner 1989). In growth of the embryonic stem cells require temperature, partial pressure of oxygen, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, pH, and shear force and biochemical conditions of their micro- and macro-environment. Then try to find homogeneous and uninterrupted conditions for micro- and macro-environment for the full cells population. By untrue cell statistical distribution, lack of nutrition and oxygen and insufficient extracellular matrix output cause some limitation to bioreactor scaffold in stem cell culture. Therefore, get rid of those must make to stem cell onto polymers, which will increase the mechanical strength of the heart tissue obscure body part and develop subsequent tissue formation.To develop a bioreactor to provide cyclic flexural stimulation, to demonstrate the operation of the bioreactor and sterility maintenance and to evaluate the effects of unifacial flexure on the effective stiffness of bioresorbable polymeric scaffolds which have been use extensively in the tissue engineering of the heart tissue. Therefore, must design the devices for closed controlled environment in which biological and/or biochemical surgical procedurees are developed kept up(p) pH, temperature, pressure, nutrient supply and waste removal, with high degree of reproducibility of the heart valve. Therefore, bioreactors are particularly crucial for the regeneration of complex 3D tissues. The bioreactor was designed using 3D software. The structural element of the device was machined from polysulfone chosen for its excellent thermal and chemical stability and abrasion-resistant acrylic which provides darling optical transparency. Culture medium was Dulbeccos Modified Eagles Medium with 4.5 g/L glucose and L-glutamine supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. Antibiotics were excluded to assess the intrinsic ability of the bioreactor to maintain sterility. When developing scaffold use the degradable material and permanent materials as in artificial implants and in use of cells. Then preparing scaffold must test in vitro and in vivo how they hypotheses of scaffold and cell interaction, scaffold effect on tissue growth and 3D environment effect on stem cell differentiation. Scaffold materials consisted of a non-woven mesh of polyglycolic acid(PGA) fibers dip-coated with poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB), and a non- woven, 5050 blend, mesh of PGA and poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) fibers dip-coated with P4HB. The PGA and PGA/PLLa scaffold had an approximate fiber diameter of 0.012-0.015 mm and density of 69mg/ml. Rectangular scaffold sample were cut to size (approximately 257.5x2mm) and swayback briefly into a solution of P4HB in tetrahydrofuran (1% wt/vol), resulting in a P4HB considering following solvent evaporation. P4HB is a bioresorbable thermoplastic that allows for scaffold to be moulded into any shape. Scaffold were cold gas sterilized with ethylene oxide prior to use.The use of bioreactors, chambers which provide the flow of nutrient media for the development and culture of heart valves construct, to provide an environment which as closely as possible mimics the congenital in vivo conditions. These bioreactors have been designed for pulsatile flow, driven by a pulsatile pump, whi ch leads to the labor of only a positive pressure. This is not the case in vivo, as during the cardiac cycle the positive pressure exerted by fluid force is slightly counterbalanced by a little vacuum. Stem cells grow in vitro under bioreactor conditions must provide the nutrient and they produced the nitrogen bring waste product, but they sensitive to the nitrogenated waste product. This will be change with the tissue and that will change the shear stresses effecting on the tissue. The oxygen pressure is kept up(p) at set constant value with deliberate volume of solution added every time to the medium. Other way round maintained the carbon dioxide pressure at set constant value with calculated volume of waste product removed from the medium. Oxygen is most important nutrients for cells in all aerobic metabolic cycles. It is the limiting nutrient in successful tissue growth in vitro, sufficient amounts of oxygen to the get on of the cells mainly because of the poor solubility of oxygen in culture media. In that case hypo-oxygen or hyper-oxygen stresses will be concern the stem cell culture causes of programmed cell death or apoptosis. Therefore, specify the stem cell for the anaerobic cell metabolism with low oxygen tension (40 mmHg) and low pH or for aerobic cell metabolism with higher oxygen tension (80mmHg) and high pH. Then living tissue is sensitive to pH changes in the medium, during maintain of the oxygen level must maintain the pH also. Other than that glucose and lactate are providing to cell metabolic process. Therefore, they act as the indicator for cells activity.In the bioreactor environment stem cell proliferates and increased the bay window that leads the limitation of the final size of the tissue grow. Other than that, there are spaces to pass oxygen and nutrient throughout the scaffold otherwise this also leads to limitation of the tissue growth. Therefore, bioreactor must design to proper diffusion of oxygen and the nutrient and mass proliferation cell will survive and proliferate at bottom 150-200m distance.Shear stress will affect the tissue culture growth, most of the stem cell responds to it. They are proliferating according the orientation of the flow direction. In that case stem cell can aggregates by using higher shear stress that can be used for tissue function and viability. If design the rotating bioreactor that can decrease the shear stress and avoids the strain between the cells and the wall of the bioreactor, chamber must permanently rotate with one direction and control to forming uniformed growth of the tissue. But if design the non-rotating bioreactor then must create the specific mechanical stress applied on the cell culture, by perfusion solution can passed through the cell tissues by flow through the culture chamber. Some experiments were demonstrated that the shears stress 0.1 dyn/cm2 was ideal for stem cell to growth. If that exceeds the shears stress 1 dyn/cm2 were modify the cells and the shears 0.01 dyn/cm2 were insufficient to promote the growth.Bioreactors have developed functional heart tissue in vitro environment over specific biochemical and somatogenetic signals known to regulate cell differentiation, by improving the formation of the heart tissue by proving uniformed mixing pattern, transported the nutrient to enhance the cell growth and hydrodynamic or mechanical stimulation for stem cell to develop. Simple static flaskfuls or a magnetically stirred flask is not suitable environment for 3-dimensional heart tissue scaffolds to develop. To develop the last possible homogeneous cell number for heart tissue, must grow the cell with uniform and efficient of porous scaffolds. When compare the cells seeding into mixed petri dishes admit with the static loading of the cell into the scaffolds has thicker constructs and more spatially uniformed distribution of cells. By seeding in rotating vessels or mixed flask must maintain a uniformed suspension of isolated cells and provide a sexual relation velocity between cells and the scaffold during seeding. Dynamic seeding using mixed flasks will show to achieve seeding efficiencies approaching 100% but led to cell densities higher at the scaffold periphery. Therefore, when design bioreactor must provide the scaffold perfusion with a cell suspension in alternate directions, which lead to the more homogenous seeding on a variety of scaffold with potential yield. erst the cells are associated with the scaffold, cell-polymer constructs can be cultured in bioreactors applying specific regimes of fluid flow.Selecting revolution wall vessels bioreactorThe bioreactors are used for proliferation of cells on a small or large scale, to generate 3D tissue constructs, a certain process must occur. That case the cells are proliferated in a bioreactor to provide the quantity of cells needed. The cell loses their specialized characteristics during the process of proliferation is the problem. Therefore, microc arrier culture used for improves cell expansion significantly and that mixed the bioreactor system well. After the cell proliferation they must associate with enhanced heart tissue formation. In above process cells must receive proper nutrition and a stable environment. There for controlled the temperature, optimum pH, sufficient substrate, water, salts, vitamins, and oxygen. The Rotating-wall vessel culture is the best bioreactor for culturing constructs stained intensely, and homogeneously for scaffold for their cross-sectional area. Inside the bioreactor a dynamic flow generated by a rotating fluid environment is an alternative and efficient way to reduce diffusion limitations of nutrients and wastes. The rotation produced the low level of the shear stress to the cells, creating mechanical stimulation. Other than that, there are other mechanical forces that affect the cells during growth, like mechanical compression, hydrodynamic pressure, and fluid flow. They will affect the mag nitude, frequency, and duty of the bioreactor cycle.To control the free-falling state adjusted the rotation speed, it protects the fragile tissue by lessen the shear stress and avoiding the contact between cells and the walls of the bioreactor. During 1990s NASA scientist did some research about the microgravity involved in to the cell tissue of the mammals. They used the closed tubular cylinder forms the systems cell culture chamber, which filled with a suave medium where the cell grows on micron-size beads. The chamber has rotated along the horizontal axis in that case they allowed the cell to develop in an environment like the free fall of microgravity. They supply oxygen and nutrition through a porous wall in the chamber, as same way they removed the waste product and the carbon dioxide. The rotating wall vessel bioreactor is providing the conditions of nimbleness for microbes by growing them inside of a slowly rotating liquid-filled chamber. The process of the rotation liqui d has counteracted with slow sedimentation of the cell by creating a constant free fall of the cells through the culture medium. While rotation cell gets a slight sheer stress from liquid, lead to avoid the shape on the bottom of the container. The scientist used the clear shell for allowed to check growth and cylindrical filter holds on the centre for supply the oxygen and nutrition and removed the carbon dioxide and waste products. And, they insure the fluid rotation without shear stress would leads to destroy the cells. They noticed rotation vessels did not cancelled the gravity, but that maintain the cells in continual free fall environment inside the shell.Bioreactors for the application of physical forces to engineered cartilage tissues. In the rotating wall vessel system (A), the rotational speed is adjusted so that the drag force of the medium (Fd) is balanced by the centrifugal (Fc) and gravitational (Fg) forces. The constructs are thus maintained in a tumble-slide regime and the resulting dynamic laminar flow enhances the production and accumulation of cartilaginous extracellular matrix. Specific culture chambers (B) have been developed for the application of direct deformation to engineered constructs. Chambers include well to allocate tissue constructs (I), a magnetic bar for medium rousing (II), an inlet/outlet port for medium change (III), a cover lid to maintain sterility (IV), and micrometer screws to accurately establish the contact position between the plungers and each specimen (V).The cell seeding is effects of agitate speed and initial cell concentration in suspension on cell culture medium, therefore cell seeding must do in efficiency. In that case initial seeding density and cell distribution within the scaffolds must understand. Initially cell concentration is low, in that time seeding efficiency and initial density will change magnitude with increasing shaking speed. But high initial cell concentration that will reverse the result. exclusively the different cell concentration uniformity of the cell distribution decreased with increased shaking speed. But under the same shaking garishness were observed with on significant differences in uniformity between cells with different initial concentration. In vitro the tissue engineering of heart tissue structures is to develop combined cell seeding and perfusion system. Cell seeding is consisting of whole system, that incorporated into the perfusion system and air-driven inhaler pump connected to the bioreactor. Therefore, cell culture medium is closed-loop system that will continuously circulate. Therefore, scientist developed a cell seeding device for static and dynamic seeding of vascular cells onto a polymeric vascular scaffold and a closed-loop perfuse bioreactor for long term vascular conditioning. By using cell seeding chamber can be easily connected to the bioreactor, which have combines continuous pulsatile perfusion and mechanical stimulation to the tis sue -engineered conduct. In that scientist adjust the stroke volume, the stroke rate, and stirring/ expiration time of the ventilator allow various pulstile flows and different levels of pressure. reciprocationWhen selecting of the scaffold consider the biocompatibility, reproducibility, biodegradability, ability to be processed to complex shapes, ability to support cell growth and proliferation and mechanical properties of materials. Other than that, scaffolds must have similar electrical and functional activity with create systolic force. The express availability of the incubator space the place where the multiple bioreactors place, in this space multiple bioreactors must be places. Development of the stem cell is temperature depended process, any cells grow at body temperature in optimal level therefore temperature must maintain in that level as possible. The bioreactor design must set the temperature parameter to monitor the temperature. If inside temperature changes by increa sed or decreased then that must alarm on, then it can adjust manually.Sterility is very important throughout the development of the heart tissue. We used flask and glass vessels with threaded fitting, which is cheap and proved to maintain perfect sterility. To reduce the risk of contamination, make sure all connections before sterilization and sterilize bottles with correction solutions connected to the vessel, by using either alcoholic drink or stem. The tubing can be placed into the pump honcho easily after the sterilization. Because contamination of the medium lead to the growth of the heart tissue. Therefore, bioreactor must develop as a semi-closed system.Maintain the small cell culture medium all the time, unproblematic replace the balance amount of the cell culture medium for requirement created by cell seeded as soon as possible. If require in addition to that easy seeding of the additional cells. Maintain the oxygen level in the medium is very essential therefore, reas sure the amount of the oxygen in the medium is enough for the development of the stem cells. When we maintain the pH level in the medium that passively adjust oxygen level in the medium, by better the medium with CO2 level up to 5%. The biocompatible substances must use when the designing process of the bioreactor, those substance will not kill the stem cell during the tissue growth. There are many analytic parameters, those must monitor regularly with some sensory methods to alarm if there are any changes occur in the media and correct it manually. Any design bioreactor can have ability to experiment several times with longer period. If there are any alternations, like change the cell culture medium with ingredients needed or changer scaffold materials change those and can perform the process easily. By using roller pump can sucks the cell culture medium from the bioreactor, which leads to stress of the scaffold. This help to stem cell growth towards the heart tissue.This bioreact or must use inside the hospital, for treat each of the hole in the heart patient therefore this must produce low cost heart tissue for the patient. Other than that, there should be very low laboratory involvement and convince for patient and the surgeon. When using this kind of tissue engineering think some social highlight that affect the both quality and quantity of the life. Some religious background this technology is some bad for the life, ethical concern there are some extent to do those kinds of experiment. But medical point of view this is the good solution for treatment of the patient without suffering. In that case be paying attention of handling with stem cell and other, that will lead to caused critical menace to handler.ConclusionsThe developed bioreactor has set sterility at least week, with working mother fucker for conducting experiments regarding heart tissue growth. The growth of the heart tissue helps to develop entire heart, which can helpful to many heart dis eases. Nutrition concentration must keep in mind when performing the bioreactor process. When the time of the replacing the medium nutrition concentration must maintain, also try to minimize the number of time replacement the medium.AcknowledgmentI would like to thank prof Alicia El Haj, Dr. Nicholas R. Forsyth and Dr. Ying Yang for their support and guidance in complementary this study.I would like to special thank Dr. Sun Tao for his support and guidance in completing this study.

Understanding Educational Aspirations And Expectations

Understanding Educational Aspirations And ExpectationsIt is no longer headinged that extravagantly education level and gentle capital formation promote human well-being and ar one of the main(prenominal) preconditions for economic growth (Romer, 198928). Moreover, on with evolving globalization, competition and economic challenges world is facing, returns to faculty member acquire ments energise nonplus large than ever (Harmon and Walker, 200139), and meek pedantic achievements dischargeister be check outn as a constraint for economic independence. It has been observed that during the World financial crisis unemployment has bettermentn save among the less educated people1. Therefore, it would be just natural if we would get wind much than than young full-growns, from both grammatical sexual activitys and all kind and kind groups, grasp for graduate(prenominal) educational levels and taking advantage of possibility to lay down mel woefuleder(prenominal )(prenominal) returns. However, point shows that educational attainment among youth differs importantly (e.g., Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987). Therefore, the question frame why decently talented individuals with similar abilities and initial preferences make enemy schoolman choices, and why some of them end up in dismay paying frolics and occupations?Economists suck tried to apologize this phenomenon with the introduction of credit trade imperfections, which individuals from less advantageous backgrounds force be facing (Loury 1981, Galor and Zeira 1993, Piketty 1997). However, these hypotheses argon questioned in a large personify of publications. Although in developing countries credit constraints king be a partial explanation for differences in educational attainment, this does non fully excuse the differences in the develop world. Evidence shows that in develop word families facing economic constraints, when it comes to education, re place only a low-spirited p art of the community (Cameron and Taber 2002). Besides, nowadays at that place exist some(prenominal) organizations and bullion which be providing scholarships and financial help to scholarly persons from low income families2. Therefore, it is native to look for opposite, to a greater extent internal reasons that could explain differences in educational choices and attainment among young adults with equal abilities and preferences.For being subject to understand and change ones educational and life story choices, it is essential to understand what determines his or her uptakes. However, explaining it is non a straight forward task. Aspirations argon determined already in advance(prenominal) childhood and ar disposed to changes end-to-end the life. Moreover, sometimes full(prenominal) educational aspirations are not decent to guarantee a better outcome. This phenomenon exists cod to aspiration-expectation cattle ranch, when ones desired goals do not coincide wit h the expected outcome overdue to the disbelief to a flourishing result. This pattern is especially observed among women and trustworthy heathenish groups. Therefore, it is not only essential to look at the level of educational aspirations, but it is excessively essential to ask if ones aspirations are everto a greater extent fulfilled.Although a considerable marrow of literature has hit the booksd educational and life aspirations of young adults, the animate literature ladders to brook somehow different conclusions therefore, a comprehensive and critical literature freshen up, miss different f forgeor incline ones schoolman and race aspirations, is still missing. The subprogram of this study is to contribute to an understand of how factors corresponding gender, heathenity, chums, parents, instructors and self-efficacy beliefs puzzle out young adult pedantic and career aspirations and decision making. This thesis result also explain why sometimes high asp irations for girls and downhearted students do not tinge to high educational outcomes the existence of an aspiration-expectation gap lead be financial support by the latest empirical info. Further, this thesis will discuss the existing policy measures aimed to promote and raise children educational attainment. Hence, the enquiry questions of this thesis areWhat are the determinants of educational and career aspirations?Why high educational aspirations do not always lead to better outcomes?What are the existing policies and projects in tack to raise ones educational and career expectations?The focus of the thesis will be qualitative studies and will be based on an bulky literature review, covering various study fields, explaining the determinants of educational and career aspirations ( fortune I). Part II will provide different theories explaining an aspiration-expectation gap for girls and relentless students the existence of it will be supported by the latest quantitative data from U.S. Census Bureau 2010. Further Part III will digest on the overview of the policy measures and government projects that countenance been implemented in order to raise ones expectation level and close the aspiration-expectation gap.Chapter 1Literature review of the determinants of educational and career aspirationsThis chapter introduces the determinants of educational and career aspirations and expectations. It begins with an introduction of the necessary definitions. Further, it is explained how ones aspirations and expectations are create by providing different views and findings from an existing literature.1.1 Defining educational and career aspirationsIt is believed that student educational and career aspirations are the most relevant factors as trusted ones future educational attainment (Gottfredson 1981 Trice and King, 1991). Therefore, it is essential to understand the persist meaning of aspirations. However, there has not been reached a consensus of one and certain definition therefore, various explanations require been provided by different authors.Markus and Nurius (1986) develop reported aspirations as ones ideas and hopes of possible selves, i.e., what a person would care to and what would not like to become or achieve. In psychology, aspiration level has been defined as the level of quality of a task which one desires to attain. It is a determinant of an individuals executing level in the future. It has been hypothesized that aspiration level varies from persons to person and built in bed to place and is determined by factors that may change and capture aspirations level during the life history3.Likewise, the Wisconsin model4, which is a socio-economical model developed by Sewell and his colleagues in 1969 meant to explain ones social mobility and its determinants, provides definitions of educational and career aspirations. The educational aspiration level varying in the model is explained as the level of education one wo uld like to attain, e.g., not continue higher education after high enlighten, refrain vocational discipline or attains college or university degree. Sewell et al. (1969) defines career aspiration level as ones ambitions and thoughts somewhat their future occupation.However, some studies have suggested that high educational aspirations do not necessarily lead to high educational attainment (Empson, 1992 Conroy, 1997). Gottfredson (1981) has identified this phenomenon and has provided explanation to it. She suggests the existence of realistic aspirations or expectations and idealistic aspirations. The reason is applied when ones educational and career aspirations are tempered by familiarity of obstacles and opportunities ( brownness, 2002 91), part the idealistic aspirations are ones desired goals and ideal education and occupation, in other words best possible life outcome. If there is a difference in the midst of these two types of aspirations and ones idealistic aspiration s do not theorize ones expectations or realistic aspirations, there exist an aspiration-expectation gap (Danziger and Eden, 2006).Hence, in this thesis Gottfredsons speculation nigh two types of aspirations and Danzigers and Edens definition of aspiration-expectation gap will be used. Firstly, determinants of idealistic aspirations will be discussed. Later this thesis will exuberant on the outside(a) factors that work ones expectations or realistic aspirations. For the sake of simplicity, in the following text this thesis will refer to realistic aspirations as expectations while to idealistic aspirations as aspirations.1.2 Determinants of educational and career aspirations and expectationsUnderstanding the deal elements that determine ones educational and career aspirations and expectations is a tricky task. Existing express shows that there are many factor and circumstances that can shape them in a positive or negative way. Therefore, to contribute to a clearer understandin g, in the following sections this thesis will deeply and broadly examine the determinants of aspirations and expectations.1.2.1 Initial adults determinants of ones aspirationsWe will firstly look at the initial endowment determinants, i.e. gender and heathenality, which influence ones aspirations. These factors are extremely powerful in shape ones pedantic and career aspiration level already in an previous(predicate) childhood.1.2.1.1 sexual activityGender effect has a relevant component in determining ones aspiration level. A considerable amount of literature has cerebrate on gender- related to differences in academic and career aspirations (Howard, 1979 Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987 Danziger and Eden, 2007).Different views exist on the nature of the differences among both gender aspirations. Patton and Creed (2007) has argued that male students tend to express higher aspirations for education level and position in the labor force, while Mau and Bikos (2000), approaching the same question, found the opposite. They claimed that girls are more(prenominal) believably to accept higher aspirations than men. Overall, most of the studies have supported Mau and Bikos (2000) view ( meet No.1) (e.g., Clift and Vaughan 1997 Butlin 1999 Anisef et al., 2001 Perry et al., 2009). Also, during the last decades young-bearing(prenominal) educational attainment and workforce has increased rapidly (Schoon, Martin and Ross, 2007) however, it has been observed that not too many women expect to follow careers which are mainly associated with the opposite sex, such as science and technology, despite the fact that these careers usually give in higher salary. This pattern becomes even more compelling as there is no evidence observed of differences in quantitative abilities in tasks related to science and technology amid both genders (Betz and Hackett, 1981). simulacrum No.1Source Looker, D. And Thiessen, V. (2004 visualize 1)1.2.1.2 EthnicityResearch has shown that educa tional and career aspirations vary across different ethnic groups. However, the results found in different studies yield different conclusions. It has been wildly fancied that the highest educational aspirations are held by Asian (especially Chinese) students (e.g., Cheng and Stark, 2002 Willitts et al., 2005). Their high aspirations are formed earlier than ones for other ethnic groups and are held constantly high throughout life (Kao and Tienda, 1998). Most of the researches contacted have found that White boys have the last(a) aspiration level betwixt all the other ethnic groups (Figure No.2) (Dillard and Perrin, 1980 Strand, 2007) and their educational achievements during the last years have increased less than for other ethnic groups (Figure No.3)5. White boys were found to hold get down aspirations than their Black peers in the research conducted by Wilson and Wilson (1992). Contrary, Cook et al. (1996) discovered that middle class White males had higher educational aspirat ions than low-income African American males. However, this conclusion does not seem straight-forward as the differences might be also explained by the economic factors.Figure No.2 Figure No. 3Data rise S., Strand (2007 39) Data source Department for Children, Schools and Families Statistical First Release, England (2010 12)Although, Strand (2007) has found that Black Caribbean and Black African students might have higher academic aspirations than White students, their higher educationalattainment seems to be much begin (Figure No.4). Therefore, a question arises what are the factors that do not allow high aspiration geological fault into high achievements? The answer lies in the aspiration-expectation gap on which this thesis will elaborate in chapter 2.Figure No.3Source Jusan Ng (2011)1.2.2 External factors determinants of ones expectationsIn the next two sub-sections, this thesis will concentrate on external factors, i.e., peers, teachers and parents, which can positively or n egatively influence ones academic and career expectations.1.2.2.1 Peer effectA variable studied in the literature concerning the determinants of academic and career expectations is the peer effect. The peer effect refers to the positive or negative influence noteworthy others have on ones expectations and level of achievement (e.g., by providing one with feedbacks, models or norms how they should behave, think and act in certain situations). Among their peers young adults develop their identities and self concept therefore they are essential socialization agents for a young individual (Bandura, 1989 Brown et. al., 1994 Black, 2002). Although, some have argued that children expectations are more likely to be shaped by the characteristics of a family than by the characteristics of peers (Duncan et. al., 2001), relevant amount of the literature shows that peers play a crucial role in influencing ones achievement level and educational expectations (Peterson et al., 1986 Willms 1986 Gol dstein et al., 2005).Ide et al. (1981) examined ten studies produce form 1966 to 1978 that concerned the peer effects influence on ones academic achievements and expectations. In all these studies, they found a significant cor affinity. This finding is lucid with Downs and Rose (1991) who argue that peer effect is contributing to the construction of ones appearance and academic expectations.Another, slightly different view is held by Haller and Butterworth (1960) who look more critically on the straight forward correlation amid ones academic expectations and peer influence. Although, they do not reject it, they emphasize that the initial factors, like characteristics and family backgrounds, could play a key role in bringing in concert similar individuals in that way forming homogeneous groups of peers. According to Jonsson and Mood (2008) children with high academic expectations and achievements are likely to connect with those sharing the same interests and expectations. Opposi tely, adolescents, who have worse locating to school and pull down expectations, will most equiprobable be attracted to peers with similar views (Ryan, 2000).In sum, it has been found that being around a certain group of people will have an effect on a persons future, specifically, it will impact the academic level or career one will expect to achieve. However, the degree of the importance of peers is ambiguous as different studies yield different results.1.2.2.2 teachers and parents influenceAs discussed earlier peers have a certain influence on shaping ones academic expectations (e.g., Peterson et al., 1986 Willms, 1986 Black, 2002) however, a significant amount of literature points out the importance of familys and teachers influence on children long term decisions, e.g., occupation considerations (Jurkovic and Ulrici, 1985 OBrien, 1990 Furman and Buhrmeister, 1992 fence in et al., 1999 Duncan et. al., 2001). It is believed that teachers and parents can positively influence o nes confidence and beliefs of his or her abilities, thus, persuading that the person is capable of being successful in further life (Van Auken and Stephens, 2006).According to skirt et al. (1999) parents as a support and role model have influence on ones conception about educational and career opportunities. Parents social support is directly linked with students school get laids, achievements and behaviors (Nurmi, 1987). There also exist a positive correlation amongst parents expectations for their child and childs expectations for himself (e.g., Davies and Kandel, 1981 Hossler and Stage, 1992). Family support can encourage the student to devote bigger effort to learning and school tasks (Gilbert et al., 1993). It is also observed that children who have the highest self-efficacy are the ones with the biggest family social support (Dubow and Ullman, 1989). In contrast, the ones with low family cohesion are more clear to depression, low self-efficacy and self-pride (Moran and Ec kenrode, 1991 Cauce et al., 1992 Hirsch and DuBois, 1992). Moreover, Wall et al. (1999) has claimed a stronger correlation between young male expectations and the family support than the one for girls. In the research by Roper, (2008) it was shown that parent expectations and student GPA are correlated (Table No.1). Children with higher grades tended to have parents with higher expectations for them. According to De Coulon et al. (2008) also parents education level plays a significant role in formation of children expectations. In their research, they found a significant correlation between low literacy rates of parents and low test heaps by their children. It was shown that parents with the lowest literacy skills were the least supportive and encouraging in relation to education. As a result, children with such parents were more likely to report dissatisfaction with school and develop low educational expectations.Table No.1Source Roper (2008 2)A significant amount of literature ha s discussed parents and family role in shaping ones expectations, however, the body of literature about teachers expectation influence is rather small. Cheung (1995) found evidence on positive teacher influence on ones academic achievements. Teacher support has shown to have a bigger influence on women, student from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and ethnic nonage perceptions of academic and career opportunities (Ellis and Lane, 1963 Wall et al., 1999). However, it is a great deal blamed that teachers have insufficient expectations for their students, especially for students in folksy areas and for certain student groups (Bishop, 1989 Hilliard III, 1991). It is shown that teachers tend to establish better contact and attitude forward students with higher ability (Bamburg, 1994). This is seen as a problem because children tend to internalize and adopt teacher perceptions about their abilities, which as a result, in graphic symbol of low teacher expectations can lead to psychologi cal constraints for self-efficacy and self-esteem (Raffini, 1993).To sum up, a considerable body of literature has shown that teachers, parents and peers can influence ones academic and career expectations. Young adults tend to internalize expectations that others have about him or her and accordingly adjust their own educational and career expectations.1.2.3 Self-efficacy beliefsAs already discussed, all of the beforehand mentioned factors, i.e., gender, ethnicity and social support, have an effect on shaping ones behavior, thoughts and attitudes towards different tasks, education levels and occupations. However, in order to be able to reach the aspired goals it is also extremely beneficial that one has a high self confidence in what he is doing. It was shown that teachers and parents have the ability to influence ones self-beliefs what in turn leads to higher or lower level of academic expectations of that individual. Therefore, this section will discuss why high self-efficacy bel iefs, i.e., ones belief that she or he is capable of producing certain level of doing to attain certain goals (Bandura et al., 2001), are important in determining the outcome.The importance of self-efficacy on ones educational expectations have been wildly studied in the literature (e.g., Bandura, 1994 Lent and Brown, 1996 Nauta et al., 1998 Brown Lent, 2006) it has been proven that individuals self-efficacy beliefs have a significant importance in promoting positive outcomes and reducing the possibility of negative outcomes (Oyserman et al., 2006 Destin and Oyserman, 2009).Students who have high self-efficacy are more productive, efficient and confident about their performances than their peers with the same ability but lower self-efficacy. It has been also shown that they put more effort and are more operose on the task than others, as well as they are more committed to their goals (Bandura, 1997 Schunk and Pajares, 2005). Therefore, the ones with high self beliefs perform bett er and based on better outcomes have higher future academic and career expectations (Brown Lent, 2006) (Figure No.5)6.Figure No.5Source Looker, D. And Thiessen, V. (2004 Figure 10)Chapter 2Aspiration-expectation gapIn the previous chapter, determinants of ones academic and career aspirations and expectations were discussed. It was shown by the evidence from the existing literature, that girls are more likely to hold higher aspirations than boys (e.g., Clift and Vaughan 1997 Butlin 1999 Anisef et al., 2001 Perry et al., 2009) and Black adolescents hold higher aspirations than Whites (e.g., Wilson and Wilson, 1992 Strand, 2007). It was also shown that social support has an influence on forming ones expectations.However, high aspirations do not always lead to high educational attainment and high position in the labor force (Strand, 2007). It has been suggested that the problem lies in the difference between aspirations and expectations. Unfortunately, often academic and career expecta tions of girls, Black Africans and Black Caribbean students are lower than their aspirations due to some perceptions in the partnership, perceived barriers or even academic feedback (e.g., Gottfredson, 1981 Armstrong Crombie, 2000). As a result, this can lead to underachievement and lowered self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura et.al. 2001).This chapter will approach this phenomenon by providing existing and relevant theories that tend to explain the reasons of an existing aspiration-expectation gap for effeminates and ethnic minorities. Later, empirical data obtained from U.S. Census Bureau results will be provided to help us to confirm or reject some of the existing theories and hypothesis, therefore, giving the final concussions.2.1 GenderOne of the explanations for different gender-related career expectations is that women career decisions are more complex than those of men. This arises from a bigger involvement in family and children lives or possible early pregnancy (Vonderacek et al., 1986 Lucas et.al., 1997 Eccles, 2005). Even more, women academic and career expectations can be shaped by existing stereotypes or strong gender identity because of social role perceptions (Eagly, 1987 Akerlof and Kranton, 2000 Danziger and Eden, 2007 Gupta et al., 2008).2.1.1 Stereotype activation theoryGender stereotyping can influence a persons decision making when it comes to academic or career choice (Heilman, 2001 Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald, 2002). Gupta et al. (2008) examined the impact of stereotypes on both genders intentions to follow traditionally male-related occupations. They found evidence showing that people were likely to internalize stereotypes and act according to them, choosing tasks associated with their own gender. This pattern is more observable if the stereotype is wildly accepted in a culture (Heilman, 2001).According to Day (1990) many women have high aspirations however, usually they do not expect to be able to have the occupation they would like to i n case it is more male-dominated. Wall et al. (1999) was examining the correlation between career expectations and career aspirations. As a result, they found inconsistency between women career expectations and aspirations, i.e., their expectations were most of the time lower than their aspirations. The phenomenon was explained by stereotypes in the society about gender-related jobs and women beliefs about the limits of what they possibly can achieve.2.1.2 Social role and socialization theoryAnother important theory explaining differences in men and women career and academic expectations is the social role theory. The theory, developed by Eagly (1987) is based on the historical division of men and women roles in the society, where women were associated with household responsibilities while men had responsibilities concerning livelihood of the family. Consequently, career expectations started to differ among men and women. Furthermore, the gender-related roles were usually transmitte d to future generation making the distinction between appropriate gender roles in the society even stronger (Eagly, 1987).Moreover, the academic and career expectations are shaped by socialization processes people experience in childhood. Socialization shapes people perceptions of what is appropriate for themselves and for others, including what is expected from both genders (Seymour, 1999). Further, in early childhood children learn these roles associated with their gender, which in turn, shapes later perceptions about different types of jobs and influences their academic and career expectations (Danziger and Eden, 2007). According to Eagly and Wood (1999) and Franke et al. (1997) both genders tend to adjust their expectations in accordance with their social roles and expect to have occupations connected with their own gender (Dunne, Elliott and Carlsen, 1981). This leads to men occupying men-related professions and attaining higher educational levels while women tend to enter more female-related studies and jobs and attain lower educational levels (Powell and Butterfield, 2003).Although, gender stereotyping has been diminishing and the gender gap in education has been decreasing (Power and Wojtkiewiez, 2004), there are still less female than male representatives in men-related studies and profession fields (Powell and Butterfield, 2003) this shows that Eaglys (1987) social role theory is a considerable attempt to explain the differences between female and male academic and career expectations.2.2 EthicityThere are two main views, respectively structuralist and culturalist, that tend to explain differences in educational attainment between ethnic groups.2.2.1 Structuralist theoryAccording to structuralist status, differences in educational choices between ethnic groups can be explained by external factors. The most influential factor, following structuralist theory, shaping ones expectations is the teacher support. This view has been supported by Ellis and Lane (1963) and Wall et al. (1999) who state that teacher support have an influence on ethnic minority students perceptions about academic and career opportunities. Unfortunately, most of the time teacher expectations are negatively correlated with ethnic minority group students expectations (Strand, 2007). In his report, Strand (2007) found evidence that teachers are likely to develop lower expectations for certain ethnic groups, especially for Black students. They also tend to hold unequal attitude towards White and Black student behaviors due to racism and social stereotypes. This, as a result, leads to a situation where ethnic minority students, following teacher beliefs about them, lower their own expectations of the possible outcomes careless(predicate) to their initial high aspirations. This, in turn, can explain the differences in educational attainment between Black students and their other ethnicity peers.However, the hypothesis, that educational expectations and attainm ent between ethnic groups can be fully explained by racism and social stereotypes have been criticized. Modood (2003) has argued that Asian students tend to face more social drive and racial harassment than Black Caribbean and Black African students, yet their achievements are outstanding and there is no evidence that Asian students would experience aspiration-expectation discrepancies due to the racism toward their ethnic group.Although, there exist several problems with the structuralist core assumptions, their ideas present useful and testable information that helps to explain and understand the reasons behind Black African and Caribbean student aspiration-expectation discrepancies.2.2.2 Culturalist theoryAccording to culturalist point of view, differences in educational choices rise from internal factors, like internalization of historical and social norms or constraints. Therefore, culturalist perspective can partly fill the missing holes in the structuralist theory and explai n why, for example, Asian students perform better than their Black peers although are both inclined to racial harassment.Caplan et al. (1991) has argued that Asian performance is significantly better than one for other ethnic groups due to their cultural perceptions and understanding. It is claimed that Asian students tend to hold higher sense of responsibility for their family and prioritize self-reliance more than students from other ethnic groups, especially, Black Africans and Black Caribbeans.It is observed that Black Caribbean boys on average experience bigger peer pressure than other ethnic groups. They are exposed to the pressure to adopt the lifestyle of street culture, which negatively influences their academic performance (Sewell, 1997). Ogbu and Fordhams (1986) have contributed to the explanation why Black students tend to have low educational attainment despite the fact that they are holding high educational aspirations. They focused on two opposite ways how students a re thinking and behaving, i.e., acting White and acting Black. Due to the previously mentioned peer pressure of adopting the street culture, acting White, i.e., doing well at school, is not seen as appropriate behavior for Black students. Therefore, Black students choose to keep their identities and are avoiding acting White, what results in lower educational achievements and attainment than in case of an absence of this pressure.Another factor that triggers the low educational attainment for Black African and Caribbean students is the socio-historical factor (Ogbu, 1991). Based on the historical roles in the society for Black population, Black African and Black Caribbean students may under lever the necessity of investment in education. This is due to job ceiling they might feel they are facing. It has been suggested that Black people do not have the same economic opportunities as White people in the job market. In a recent study, Fouad and Byars-Winston (2005) found that, despite the high aspiration level among the Black students, they expected fewer job offers and opportunities than their White counterparts. Therefore, it is elementary to understand why Black student do not see education as an essential tool for being able to gain a high position in the labor force and their academic attainment is lower than the one for other ethnic groups. This in turn, unfortunately, has resulted in a tendency that Black people are overrepresented in low skilled jobs and are a considerable propo